前言:中文期刊網精心挑選了論語全文解釋范文供你參考和學習,希望我們的參考范文能激發你的文章創作靈感,歡迎閱讀。
論語全文解釋范文1
輔助使用結構化學教學網頁,不斷引進新的教學思想和教學理念,采用講授、討論、練習、實驗、多媒體教學等多種教學方式,實現了教學互動,調動教與學兩方面的積極性,教學效果有了明顯的提高。考核方法學生們的課堂出勤率和平時作業成績占期末總成績的30%,而學生們的結構化學筆試成績占期末總成績的70%,這種考核方式在很大程度上起到了督促學生聽課和練習結構化學知識、發揮學生主觀能動性的作用,可以提高學生學習結構化學的積極性。
結構化學考試命題嚴格按照教學大綱要求分配各章的分數,主要考察學生對知識的理解、掌握和靈活運用等情況;命題內容涉及面廣,每一章主要包括識記、理解、應用、分析與綜合等部分,任課教師可以根據學生接受知識的能力調整各部分命題內容的分數比例。評分時,教研組采取流水作業的方式,對每一位學生做到評分公正、規范,這樣客觀、全面的反映學生的學習成績以及教學質量的好壞。
豐富學生的實驗教學內容,提高結構化學的教學質量實驗教學是學生對理論課基礎知識的感性認識過程和理解、掌握過程,是對學生認識問題、分析問題、解決問題和綜合實驗技能的培養過程的重要環節,它在對學生的理論聯系實踐能力的培養過程中起重要作用。因此在結構化學的實驗教學中,我們充分利用化材學院省重點實驗室先進的儀器設備,如測定結構的X射線粉末衍射儀,氣質聯用儀,400MHz核磁共振儀和熒光光譜儀,介紹給學生,開闊學生眼界。
論語全文解釋范文2
一、選題富有時代性與地域特色
本次參評論文的選題呈現多樣化趨勢。有圍繞新時代背景下學校美術教育目的的論述,有關于美術新課程改革的探討,有美術教學及評價改革成果的展示,也有對當前美術新課程與教學中存在問題的質疑或反思:有中小學美術課程與課堂教學的研究,也有館校結合的美術教育研究,涉及美術教育研究的各個領域。此外,參評作者的地區分布較廣。有沿海發達地區的,也有內地的,其中,不乏邊疆及少數民族地區的。許多選題凸顯地域特色,緊緊圍繞全球化背景下通過中小學美術教學活動保護、繼承與發展當地本土美術文化的課題進行探討,富有時代性與地域性,具有較高的學術價值與積極的現實意義。
二、內容充實且有推廣價值
由于進行美術教育研究的最終目的是改善美術教育、教學的行為,因此,針對所發現的既有現實意義又有理論深度的問題,能否提出可行與有效的對策,是研究能否獲得成功、論文內容是否充實的關鍵。本次參評文章中,有不少是圍繞中小學美術課堂教學或校外教學展開論述的,提出了具有獨創性、可行性和有效性的教學策略和方法,這些策略和方法在全國具有一定的推廣價值。
三、研究和寫作方法比較規范
一些論文或教育敘事的作者善于發現真問題,并能緊緊圍繞美術教學的某一問題,進行層層深入的剖析,進而提出具體可行的解決途徑和方法,在研究方法和寫作方法的規范性上比以往有明顯提高,體現出較強的客觀性和科學性,因而提高了研究成果的學術含量。在凸顯美術教育研究學科特點的同時,一些論文的作者力求打破學科領域的界限,開展美術教育學與心理學、美術教育學與科學、美術教育學與社會學等方面的跨學科研究,從而產生一些富有新意的研究成果。
四、今后的期望
論語全文解釋范文3
關鍵詞:忠;??;一貫之道
子曰:“參乎!吾道一以貫之。” 曾子曰:“唯?!弊映?,門人問曰:“何謂也?”曾子曰:“夫子之道,忠恕而已矣?!保ā墩撜Z?里仁篇》)
孔子在《論語》中有“吾道一以貫之”的說法,曾子解釋為“忠恕而已矣”。 “忠恕”簡言之就是反身盡己,推己達人,縱觀《論語》全文,幾乎都是在講述這個道理。
一、孔子向曾子點明“吾道一以貫之”的原因
孔子弟子眾多,其中不乏賢者,為什么偏偏呼喚年齡較小的曾子 向他點明“吾道一以貫之”。對于這一問題的思考,歷來有著不少的爭論。
宋代儒者受佛學影響較深,注解經文時常常有佛學的影子,清人洪頤煊在《讀書叢錄》中指出“宋儒謂一貫為孔門不傳之秘,惟曾氏得其真詮,端木氏次之,其余不可得聞。此其說非也?!彼呐袛嗍欠系览淼?。儒家不像佛教那樣講求參悟,更沒有所謂的“秘傳”,孔子提倡“誨人不倦”(《論語?述而篇》)、“有教無類”(《論語?衛靈公篇》),對于學生提出的問題,也大多給出較為平白的回答,偏偏在于“一貫之道”這個最根本的問題上有所偏袒隱瞞,這是說不通的,因此宋儒所說的“秘傳”的解釋是錯誤的。
朱子在《四書章句集注》中的解釋是“圣人之心渾然天理,而泛應曲當,用各不同。曾子于其用處蓋已隨事精察而力行之,但未知其體之一爾。夫子知其真積力久,將有所得,是以呼而告之。曾子果能默契其指,即應之速而無疑也?!毕噍^于他人,朱子的說法雖然要符合情理得多,但是仍然不能令人十分滿意。朱子解釋此段經文時,大力闡發他的“理一分殊”思想 ,顯然是在借題發揮,不符合原文之意。
孔子教誨弟子時,常常針對學生的不同特點因材施教。曾子性格篤實敦厚 ,注重修養自己 ,如朱子所言“夫子知其真積力久,將有所得”,因此將其呼喚出來,告訴他“吾道一以貫之”。這樣做實際上是為了點明曾子:我的“道”并不是紛冗復雜的,不要過多糾纏于種種繁復細節而失去對于主旨的把握,要明白學問的中心只有一個,把握住這個中心就把握住了學問的要領,履行了這個中心才不至于走上歧途,如此而已。正如《中庸》所說“忠恕違道不遠”。
二、關于“忠恕”二字的解釋
關于“忠恕”二字的訓詁,前人已經做過了十分詳盡的論述,在此我便不再贅述,簡言之,《說文解字》訓“忠”為“敬也”,“恕”為“仁也”。“忠者,情之盡也。恕者,反情以同物者也?!?朱子在《四書章句集注》中解釋為“盡己之謂忠,推己之謂恕?!敝劣凇爸宜 倍咧g關系,現代學者雖有分歧,但總體而言認為“‘忠恕’是一個統一的概念,‘己所不欲,勿施于人’既是‘恕’的實際含義,也是‘忠’的具體表現。唯有其‘忠’,才有此‘恕’;倘無此‘恕’,也難見其‘忠’。故‘己所不欲,勿施于人’的定義雖然是由‘恕’引出來的,但卻是沖著‘忠恕’二字而發的?!?另外“忠恕”兩個概念間存在著一定的邏輯關系:“忠”是“恕”的必要心理前提,“恕”則是“忠”的外向性發展。 今人對于“忠恕”關系的論述是與古人的注疏相契合的。歷代《論語》注者在解釋“忠恕”時,都是將二者統一起來,在“忠”的基礎上進一步闡釋“恕”的含義,如朱子所說“‘忠恕’只是一件事情,不可作兩個看?!?/p>
然而,當今學者在談論“忠恕”關系時,常常會引入“仁”的概念,或將“忠恕”看做是“仁”的具體行為或下轄概念,或將“忠恕”視為“仁”的積極或消極面。 但是實際上,清代以前的歷代《論語》注者在解釋此句時,都未曾引入“仁”的概念,而清代全祖望的《經史問答》、顧炎武的《日知錄》等書在注解本句時,雖然提到了“仁”字,但也并沒有將“忠恕”置于“仁”之下,只是作為解釋“忠恕”內涵的引申而言的。 因此“忠恕”與“仁”并無明顯的上下級關系,或者至少可以說“忠恕”不是“仁”的消極面。而且根據《說文解字》中對于“恕”的解釋可以明顯開出來,(至少在東漢之前 )“恕”不僅沒有低于“仁”,而且在一定程度上二者是相通的。
總結來看,“忠”為竭盡己能,“恕”為反身待人,二者統一于待人,用孔子本人的話講便是“其恕乎” 。在此基礎上也就不難發現,在《論語》500余則 的記錄中,終歸是不離其宗。
參考文獻
[1] 《論語》
[2] 皇侃:《論語集解義疏》,商務印書館,中華民國二十六年初版(1937年第一版)
[3] 司馬遷:《史記》,中華書局,1982年第二版
[4] 朱熹:《四書章句集注》,浙江古籍出版社,2012年第一版
[5] 許慎:《說文解字》,中華書局,1963年第一版
[6] 馮浩菲:《關于孔子忠恕思想的界說問題》,載于《孔子研究》2003年第4期
[7] 卜師霞:《孔子忠恕思想的內涵》,載于《孔子研究》2007年第5期
[8] 黎靖德:《朱子語類》,中華書局,1986年第一版
[9] 楊伯峻:《論語譯注》,中華書局,1980年第一版
論語全文解釋范文4
關鍵詞:孔子;實踐;論語;根源
實踐不僅僅是現在這個社會所倡導的,在兩千多年前的春秋戰國時期孔子也一直倡導學習的知識要在實踐中去驗證,去實現君子的理想。
一、實踐的含義
我們首先探討一下本文所說的實踐的意義,才能展開下面的論述。
在百度百科上對實踐的解釋是這樣的:實踐是人類自覺自我的一切行為。內在意識本體與生命本體的矛盾是推動人類自我解放的根本矛盾,其外在化為人類個體及組織、階級通過生產關系聯系的整體對于自然及個體間或者集體關系、階級關系形成的解放活動。實踐只有在自覺的意識下才是人性的、人格的。很抽象,很難理解,簡而言之,就是人在自我意識之下所做的表達自己的意識的行為。
但是我們現在要探討的實踐并不是這個解釋。我們所探討的實踐更深的意義上是指學子如何對待自己所學所想,而不是將自己和自己的知識束之高閣。
二、《論語》中的教導
“學而時習之,不亦說乎?”這是耳熟能詳的金句良言,也是論語的全文基礎基調,人們往往以此來教育孩子要及時的溫習功課,加深印象,但是這犯了望文生義的錯誤,把現代的教育觀點強加在了古人的身上,孔子的真正的意義并不是這樣的?!傲暋痹诠艜杏小皩嵙暋薄把萘暋钡囊饬x,如《禮記*射義》的“習禮樂”、“習射”??鬃铀v的功課,一般都和當時的社會生活和政治生活密切結合。像禮、樂、射、御這些都是身體的訓練,都需要親身的實踐,不是普通意義上的溫習、復習。所以這句里的習不宜翻譯為溫習,實習和實踐應該比較適合。而在李澤厚的《論語今讀》中,更是直接翻譯成為實踐。
又比如曾子名言:“吾日三省吾身――為人謀而不忠乎?與朋友交而不信乎?傳不習乎?”,他的翻譯大意是:我每天多次自我反思:替別人辦事是否盡心竭力了呢?同朋友往來是否誠實?老師傳授的知識是否復習了呢?這里的“習”和“學而時習之”的“習”一樣,包括了溫習,實習,演習而言,后世為了方便便統一翻譯為復習。
再比如《論語*衛靈公》中的名言,“人能弘道,非道弘人?!边@句話在歷史有很多爭議,但是個人比較認同《論語集釋》的解釋,“夫子之時,老氏之流曰人法天,天法道,道法自然。曰道無為而無不為,是道能弘人之說也。彼以禮義為出于人為而不足貴,而欲不籍人力,一任道之自然,究必人事日就退化,是夫子非道弘人之說也?!备鶕@句話,我們就能知道孔子說想要表達的意義,人是不能被動的等待道作用于人身,而是應該積極地踐履,去實踐自己心目中的道,而且道不能離開人的本身,也就是說人的實踐活動有著不可缺少的作用,具有關鍵性的意義。
從這三句耳熟能詳的名言中我們不難看出孔子的態度,他不僅不反對弟子們在“紅塵”中的打滾,而且是采取鼓勵的態度,希望自己的弟子可以在把自己的學識應用在現實的實踐當中。孔子雖然推崇古代的文獻,但是他的教育的落腳點仍然是一個字“習”,也就是學習的知識要落實到生活的實踐和整體當中去,孔子所欣賞的禮樂也就更離不開實踐了,要付出于行動。而且如果認真的讀《論語》,你會發現孔子很欣賞那些言語不多的人,因為孔子認為這樣的人靠得住,是勇于實踐的人,而不是夸夸其談,卻不肯邁出一步的人,也正是這個原因,孔子非常的器重顏淵,因為顏淵是一個看起來木訥的人,也是最懂孔子的一個弟子,但是遺憾的是,顏淵的優點也是他的缺點,他的訥于言也讓他沒有辦法發揚光大孔子的思想。
這位“軸心時代”的思想巨人并不是后來被后人推上神壇的模樣一樣只會坐而論道,相反他很樸實,很真誠,很有自己的哲學。他可以溫柔的對待任何人,聽到動聽的歌聲,他可以“以歌而合”,他也可以在顛沛流離的流浪生活中繼續傳播自己的思想,堅持自己的信仰。在難于實現的時代仍然大聲提出來自己的主張,并身體力行,這就是信仰的力量。我們不能永遠成為“審時度勢”的實用主義者,而應該在清醒的了解周圍的環境后,在實踐受挫后,仍然抬起頭來看看天上永恒的太陽。
三、論語與當代大學生
老家有一句古,雖然有失偏薄,但也拿出來分享:“百無一用是書生。”這句話也許可以形容當代的許多大學生,這些曾經被家里,被社會,被國家視為“天之驕子”的驕子們,在充滿斗志的走上社會后都幾乎無一例外的要碰一鼻子灰,要先被社會狠狠地打磨一遍,才能真正的融入這個社會,才能發揮自己的才能,許多在社會浪潮中失意的大學生哀嘆自己“被社會所同化”“自己的失意是社會太過現實,沒有創造力”,其實我個人看來,除了社會與能力的問題,更重要的是大學生的知識不能夠應用社會,只會做“書本將軍”,個人與社會需要脫節。
正是暑假,很多大學生趁機參加各種實踐活動,例如“三下鄉”活動。學長學姐經歷的多,也參加過不少團體,但是在制定策劃時候也是笑話百出,明顯不符合社會的心理。暑假想要集合已經放假的學生進行集體授課,根本沒有考慮學生的心理情況;想要在農業大區給老鄉宣傳種地的知識,告訴他們怎樣可以增產,根本沒有想想老鄉的經驗遠比只從書本上獲取知識的大學生懂更多;策劃里全是高科技的東西,完全沒有想到自己去的經濟并不發達的鄉鎮,也許當地的條件根本無法支持這么多的高科技。大學生的幼稚也就顯現出來,難怪許多老鄉見到穿著統一制服的大學生都會避開,并不是老鄉不熱情,而是真的很給老鄉添麻煩。如果大學生肯去認真了解當地人民的心理,而不是帶著“高高在上”的文化人心態,也許活動可以更成功,帶來更多的人生經驗。大學生暑期參加社會實踐,無論何種形式,在崗位、單位和行業選擇時要與自身的專業知識和社會需要結合起來。大學生切記盲目,如果實習行業或單位與理想職業和專業知識相差甚遠,只為打發時間或自薦書上的實習經歷而實習,在實習過程中容易因為對工作任務沒有興趣產生倦怠情緒,沒有辦法發揮自己專業的長處,鍛煉自己的專業知識應用,往往既浪費時間,又收效甚微。
《論語》中開篇便是對實踐的強調,點明了全書的要義,表明了孔子對實踐的推崇??鬃硬⒉恢皇且粋€儒雅的老師,他也是一位智者,了解知識最終歸宿――實踐,并在自己的言行中貫徹這一理念。《論語》充滿了實踐的智慧,當代的大學生更應該離開象牙塔,多出去走走,實踐自己的所學。
參考文獻:
[1]楊伯峻.《論語譯注》
論語全文解釋范文5
師:同學們猜猜他是誰?
生:孔子。
師:誰來介紹一下孔子?
師:孔子出生在公元前551年,處于我國的春秋時期,距離現在已經有2500多年了。他出生在u邑,也就是現在山東曲阜??鬃用穑种倌帷?/p>
師:孔子是偉大的教育家、思想家,是第一個廣收門徒的老師,他先后有弟子三千,其中著名的弟子就有72人??鬃颖蛔馂榭资ト恕⒅潦ハ葞?、萬世師表。其儒家思想對中國和世界都有深遠的影響,孔子被列為“世界十大文化名人”之首。
生:孔子寫了一本書叫《論語》。
師:《論語》跟孔子有關,但不是孔子寫的。孔子去世后,他的弟子及其再傳弟子把孔子及其弟子的言行語錄和思想記錄下來,整理編成儒家經典之一《論語》。我們學校的老師擷取200條與小學生關系密切的《論語》,編成了這本校本教材。今天我們就來學習第一課。在這一節課,我們將要采用“闖三關”的形式。第一關:記誦經典。
二、 歌訣素讀,記誦經典
師:(出示)第一條經典――子曰:“學而時習之,不亦說乎?有朋自遠方來,不亦樂乎?人不知而不慍,不亦君子乎?”同學們是怎樣讀經典的?(生讀)
師:你們這是朗讀,聽老師讀。(老師歌訣體朗讀經典,學生不由自主跟節奏,或晃動身體,或用手輕輕打著節拍。)
師:老師與你們讀的有什么不同?
生:老師讀得快,有節奏,像唱歌一樣。
師:老師使用的是歌訣體的朗讀形式,同學們愿不愿意學習這種朗讀方法?
生:愿意。
(領讀之后,采用齊讀,男女生比賽讀等多種朗讀形式,直到熟讀成誦。)
三、 結合注釋,理解文字
師:同學們順利通過第一關,現在我們進入第二關:理解文字??吹谝粭l,這么多“之乎者也”是什么意思呢?老師教你們理解經典的小竅門,結合注釋理解文字。(老師結合注釋用自己的話說第一條經典的意思。)孔子說,學習知識或做人的道理,不停地去復習或者踐行,不是很高興的事情嗎?有志同道合的朋友從遠方來,不是很快樂的事情嗎?別人不了解自己,但不生氣,不是一個君子嗎?
師:現在請同學們用老師的方法,自學其余三條《論語》。(學生自學)
師:誰來說說這一條?(出示課件)子曰:“巧言令色,鮮矣仁!”
生:孔子說:“花言巧語裝作和善,是缺少仁德的?!?/p>
師:在童話故事中總有一位主人公喜歡花言巧語,他是誰?
生:狐貍,狐貍騙烏鴉的肉,狐貍想吃公雞就花言巧語騙它。真的是缺少仁德。
師:好,同學們再看這一則?(出示課件)曾子曰:“吾日三省吾身:為人謀而不忠乎?與朋友交而不信乎?傳不習乎?”
生:曾子說:“我每天多次反省自己:為別人辦事,是不是盡心竭力了呢?同朋友交往,是不是做到守信用了呢?老師傳授給我的學業,是不是復習了呢?”
師:看來結合注釋理解經典的方法都掌握了,看這一條講的是什么?(出示課件)子曰:“弟子入則孝,出則弟,謹而信,泛愛眾而親仁。行有余力,則以學文?!?/p>
生:孔子說:“學生在家里,就孝順父母;出門在外,要友愛同學,言行要謹慎,要講信用,要廣泛地去愛眾人,親近那些有仁德的人。這樣做了之后,還有精力的話,就再去學習禮樂技藝。”
師:意思大家都理解了。大家把這四則《論語》連起來讀一遍。(學生歌訣體朗讀四則《論語》)
四、 反省自我,踐行經典
師:大家順利闖過兩關,現在我們要闖第三關:踐行經典。學習經典的目的不僅僅是誦讀、理解,更重要的是讓它成為指引你前行的一盞明燈,照亮你人生之路。比如,每當我讀到“弟子入則孝,出則弟,謹而信,泛愛眾而親仁。行有余力,則以學文”中的“謹而信”時,就想起去年暑假的一天,女兒和好朋友約好下午三點去圖書館看書。誰料到中午時,烏云密布,她見勢不妙,馬上給朋友打電話,可她家電話停機。女兒看著黑沉沉的天,就說:“佳琪肯定不去了,咱要不也算了吧?!蔽铱纯刺欤挚纯此?,說:“咱們做人要講誠信,不守信用可不好?!彪m然烏云密布,我還是把她送到圖書館。我們剛邁進圖書館,就聽見佳琪在后邊喊女兒。我想,那個下午,兩個女孩收獲的不僅僅是知識,更重要的是倆人遵守承諾,換來的相互信任和友誼。同學們,面對今天學的經典,你想到了什么?(出示四則《論語》)
生:從“學而時習之,不亦說乎?”我想到學習知識還是做人的道理,都要經常的復習或者踐行。正如孔子說的“溫故而知新,可以為師矣。”
師:你用經典解釋經典,可見你是一個知識淵博的孩子。
生:“人不知而不慍,不亦君子乎?”當別人不了解自己時,卻能做到不怨天不尤人,真的就是一個君子了。這一點我做得不太好,當別人誤會了我的好意或者委屈了我,怨恨之情油然而生,我好幾天不愿意跟他說話。今后,我要力爭做一個君子。
師:勇于自我批評,你是生活的勇士。
生:讀了“巧言令色,鮮矣仁!”我想到那天去書店買書,在書店門口碰到一個年輕人,蓬頭垢面,可憐兮兮地說,他的錢被人偷了,一天了沒吃一點東西。我看他可憐,就把自己所有的錢都掏給了他,誰知他拿起錢,說了一聲“謝謝”,就匆匆走了,回頭還露出對我鄙夷的笑。那時候自己委屈極了,現在想想,那個人就是典型的巧言令色的小人?!?/p>
師:老師同情你的遭遇,贊賞你的愛心。
生:“巧言令色,鮮矣仁!”這句話中,我體會到我們既要防止巧言令色的人,更不要去做巧言令色的人。
生:我從曾子曰:“吾日三省吾身:為人謀而不忠乎?與朋友交而不信乎?傳不習乎?”想到了為別人做事,應該盡心盡力。記得有一次,朋友的汽車遙控器壞了,我幫他打開蓋后,發現線路連接的焊點開了。我的遙控器上周也出了這樣的問題,爸爸借了好多次工具,費了一天時間才修好。我害怕給爸爸添麻煩,就對朋友說:“只有這里壞了,遙控器就沒辦法修了,再去玩具店換一個吧?!爆F在想想,自己真做錯了事,自己不但沒盡力幫朋友,還撒謊欺騙他。
(同學們不約而同地鼓起掌)
師:感謝同學們的掌聲,此處也應該有掌聲。請你說說為什么送他掌聲。
生:他勇于批評自我,是個勇士。
生:他的真誠打動了我,人不怕犯錯,就怕犯錯不知悔改,還嘴硬說自己沒錯。
師:謝謝你們倆的精彩點評。同學們,人的優秀品質并不是一下子就在身體里生根發芽的,只會在你做好事的過程中慢慢孕育。人格魅力就是這樣一天天培養起來的。
生:老師,我看到“泛愛眾”我就想起了我的弟弟。他不到七歲,但心地特別善良,只要在電視上看到誰得病了,或者哪里受災了,總要收拾自己的衣服或玩具,要給小朋友送去。在路上見到乞丐,他總會向大人要錢去獻愛心。一個大雪天,我們小朋友都在雪地上打雪仗,有一個老奶奶路過,不知怎么腳一滑摔倒了,我們看見笑了起來,弟弟卻跑過去,吃力地扶起她,拍去她身上的雪,仰起臉不停地問摔得疼不疼。那急切的話語和心疼的目光叫我們這些姐姐哥哥好慚愧。
五、 總結全文,引領提升
論語全文解釋范文6
【Key words】discourse; coherence; conversation analysis; conversational implicature
【摘要】全文采用理分析的方法。首先回顧了語篇連貫的主要理論。第二部分分析了從會話含意角度解釋語篇連貫的可行性,此理論被認為是有效解釋語篇連貫的基礎。最后一部分總結全文。概括了會話含意對語篇連貫的解釋力,同時指出了目前研究的局限性。
【關鍵詞】語篇 連貫 會話分析 會話含意
1. Basic Concepts of Discourse Coherence
1.1 Discourse
Any utterance, no matter how long it is, whether it is presented in spoken or written form, as long as it constitutes a complete unity, it can be called a discourse. The term ‘discourse’ has caused much confusion in the academic field. In some linguists’ views, discourse refers to language in use. Brown, Yule hold the same view. Others believe that discourse is dependent on context. Hu Zhuanglin consider that a discourse refers to any natural language which has complete meaning under certain contexts, but is not completely restricted by sentences.(Hu Zhuanglin, 1994)
Though many linguists have defined discourse from different angles, there still is not a unified definition about it. At present time, it is generally believed that discourse is a stretch of language, spoken or written of whatever length, taking on meaning in context for its users, perceived by them to be meaningful unified and purposeful.
As coherence is one of the most important research areas of discourse analysis and it is at the very core of analysis, it is necessary to give an account of coherence.
1.2 Coherence
Coherence is very important in discourse analysis. This is because a discourse is never complete without reference to coherence, no matter how self-contained it is. Coherence is a concept which in its complexity is still not fully understood and a matter of continuing debate up to present. It is always regarded as a hot topic because it is an important factor in determining discourse’s connectivity in meaning. Roughly speaking, coherence is the semantic relationship between propositions or communicative events in discourse.
The notion of coherence is a controversial concept. There is a long history of studying coherence and there are many different interpretations on it. As early as in 1976, Halliday and Hasan stated that: “A passage of discourse which is coherent in these two regards: it is coherent with respect to the context of situation and therefore consistent in register; and it is coherent with respect to itself, and therefore cohesive. Neither of these two conditions is sufficient without the other, nor does the one by necessity entail the other.”(1976:23) Many scholars have devoted themselves to the study of coherence. The following viewpoints are two of the most influential studies of coherence. Van Dijk regards coherence as a semantic concept, while Widdowson considers it a pragmatic concept concerned with illocutionary development.
Conversational implicature refers to the implicit meaning of discourse. It is an important device for explaining discourse coherence and plays a significant function in discourse analysis. For this reason, it is necessary to discuss the factor of conversational implicature in the interpretation of discourse coherence.
2. Conversational Implicature and Discourse Coherence
Grice’s theory of conversational implicature has aroused far more attention in linguistics. This theory concerns not solely with conversations, but with all kinds of social interaction involving either spoken or written language. Conversational implicature is a major research area of pragmatics and it is also an important achievement of the theoretical research of pragmatics. Levinson point out that “conversational implicature is a typical example from pragmatics’ ability to interpret language phenomenon.” (Levinson, 1983:87) Therefore, conversational implicature can be used to interpret the phenomenon of discourse coherence. The contribution of Grice’s theory of conversational implicature to discourse analysis is a set of principles that constraints the addresser’s sequential choices in a discourse and allows the addressee to recognize the addresser’s intentions.
In essence, conversational implicature is an important device of understanding coherent discourse. This is the theoretical foundation of analyzing the phenomenon of discourse coherence by using the theory of conversational implicature. Therefore, this section attempts to give a discussion of discourse coherence from the theory of conversational implicature and expects this theory can be of great benefit to the study of discourse coherence.
2.1 Implicature and its Origin
The notion of conversational implicature is one of the single most important ideas in pragmatics. The word ‘implicature’ is often used as shorthand for ‘conversational implicature’. It is derived from the verb ‘to imply’. Originally, ‘to imply’ means ‘to fold something into something else’; hence, that which is implied is “folded in”, and has to be ‘unfolded’ in order to be understood. A conversational implicature is, therefore, something which is implied in conversation, that is, something which is left implicit in actual language use.
The key ideas of conversational implicature were proposed by Grice in the Williams James lectures delivered at Harvard in 1967 and still partially published (Grice, 1975). In that lecture, Grice proposed the notion of conversational implicature which is derived from a general principle of conversation plus four maxims (quantity, quality, manner and relation) which speakers will normally obey. The term ‘implicature’ is used to account for what a speaker can imply, suggest, or mean, as distinct from what the speaker literally says. The general principle is called cooperative principle.
Grice also points out that language user will not always obey cooperative principle and these maxims in communication, i.e., participants will normally obey, but may on occasion flout or violate. Any violation of these maxims will result in conversational implicature; this is the theoretical foundation of implicature, which provides the starting point for discourse coherence. In the following section, conversational implicature’s application will be described in detail.
2.2 Conversational Implicature’s Interpretation to Discourse Coherence
It is made clear that conversational implicature can serve as pragmatic cohesive tie of coherence, which links up all the fragmented pieces of an utterance and reveals the underlying meaning structure of the discourse as a whole. Within the theory of conversational implicature, a discourse can still achieve coherence without formal semantic cohesive ties. Therefore, conversational implicature can make great contribution to the analysis of discourse coherence.
It is worth noting the fact that implicature has certain identifiable characteristics. Implicature is partially derived from the conventional or literal meaning of an utterance. It is produced in a specific context which is shared by the addresser and the addressee and depends on the addresser and the addressee’s recognition of the cooperative principle and its maxims. According to Green’s account (1996), the coherence of a discourse depends on the addresser’s successful generation of implicature by observing cooperative principle on the one hand and the addressee’s successful inference of implicature on the assumption that the addresser is being cooperative on the other hand.
Grice observes that conversational implicature is essentially connected with certain general features of discourse. He also emphasizes that the presence of a conversational implicature must be capable of being worked out. Therefore, conversational implicature is a kind of extra meaning, not inherent in the words used. When speech behavior appears inconsistent with the maxims, the addressee will assume that the addresser is then abiding by the cooperative principle and adopt a strategy of interpreting the addresser’s behavior as conforming to the maxims. Below are two examples to illustrate this point:
[1] A: The clock is slow.
B: There was a power cut this morning.
[2] A: Have you seen my stubby screwdriver?
B: Look in the red toolbox.
In example [1], it can be assumed that the propositional content of B’s statement bears some relation to that of A’s: in particular, that B is, or might be, supplying an explanation for what A asserts to be the case. Of course, the assumption that B’s utterance is relevant to A’s in this way depends not only upon background knowledge about electric clocks, but also upon the further assumption that B shares this background knowledge and knows that the clock in question is, or might be, operated by electricity directly supplied from the mains. Thus, B’s utterance actually observes the maxim of relation and the coherence of this discourse is realized.
In example [2], B would violate maxims of relation and quantity if he did not expect A to be able to interpret his reply as a cooperative response to the question; to infer that B believed the screwdriver was in the red toolbox and that the toolbox was accessible, and so on. In fact, by responding as B does, A can infer that B implicates that the screwdriver is in the toolbox and accessible to A so as to link the two sentences and create coherence. This instance suggests that conversational implicature is a remarkable conversational strategy in explaining discourse coherence. In interpreting a discourse, when the utterance appears inconsistent with the maxims, the addressee will assume that the addresser is still complying with the cooperative principle, then adopt the strategy to interpret the addresser’s utterance as conforming to the maxims and seek to construct a sequence of inferences which make it relevant or at least cooperative. In the process of generating conversational implicatures, discourses are interpreted as coherent ones by the addressee.
In fact, conversational implicature is inferred from situational or world knowledge because its literal meaning does not conform to the need of coherent discourse. Conversational implicature uses implied meaning to substitute its literal meaning. Therefore, conversational implicature is a kind of connotation, a changed meaning in specific contexts. In essence, conversational implicature is an important device of realizing discourse coherence. The process of obtaining conversational implicature is essentially the process of realizing discourse coherence.
The theory of conversational implicature makes efforts to interpret discourses which seem incoherent superficially as coherent ones. As for this kind of superficially incoherent discourse, it is necessary to use inference to work out the links that are implicit, thus can make up ‘missing links’ among information. After having done this, coherence of discourse can be revealed.
Grice’s theory of conversational implicature has strong points in interpreting the problem of discourse coherence without the assistance of some surface formal cohesive devices. As a result of this contribution, this theory can interpret discourses which are short of semantic cohesive ties as coherent ones. Thus it can be seen that the theory of conversational implicature helps to make the research on discourse coherence step into a new stage.
3. Conclusion
All mentioned above has shown that conversational implicature has made great contributions to the analysis of discourse coherence. The notion of implicature promises to bridge the gap between what is literally said and what is conveyed by giving some account of how large portions of the material are effectively conveyed. The most obvious fact is that without the assistance of some superficial cohesive devices, a discourse still can achieve coherence.
However, as a coin has two sides, the theory of conversational implicature has its own weak points. First, Grice does not make a detailed analysis of the contents of four maxims and their relationship. Nor does he provide an inference device and give an exact definition of context. As Sperber and Wilson (1986) point out, although the idea of conversational implicature has had enormous appeal and has been used in an informal way to account for a wide range of pragmatic phenomena, little progress has been made in specifying the exact nature of the inference process by which conversational implicatures are worked out. This means that Grice’s own account of the derivation process is rather sketchy and leaves much space for improvement.
References:
[1]Brown,G.&G.Yule.Discourse Analysis.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1983.
[2]Grice,G.P.“Logic and Conversation”.Cole,P.and J.L.Morgan.(eds.)Syntax and Semantics.New York:Academic Press,1975.
[3]Halliday,M.A.K.&R.Hasan.Cohesion in English.London: Longman,1976.
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[5]Widdowson,H.G.Teaching Language as Communication.Oxford: Oxford University Press,1978.
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