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推銷學范文1
關鍵詞：參與式教學；教學設計
一、當下大學生課堂普遍現狀的問題及根源
當下大學生課堂普遍存在參與課堂互動積極性不夠，注意力容易不集中，對課堂知識厭倦。這既影響了大學生對于學習乃至社會化技能的掌握，也影響了老師課堂教學的積極性，如若不積極調整，會形成循環性的負面影響。根源在于，第一，移動互聯網的去中心化背景下導致學生對于權威主體相對保留，有別于傳統學生在課堂上對于老師權威的服從，這對教學參與和教學秩序帶來一定的挑戰，而教學規則上有天然的約束性要求，這對矛盾導致學生處于主動避讓狀態。第二，從心理學角度，大學生普遍處于“補償青春”年齡階段，高考的競爭壓力以及傳統應試教育的填鴨式教學降低了大學生學習的探索欲望和好奇心，由此產生補償心理和厭惡心理具有抗拮性。第三，從教學目的而言，教師和學生雖然從主觀上需要淡化年齡、知識結構、閱歷等的差異化，但這種差異化處理不好客觀上會影響在教學互動中的互動質量和傳授效果，既無法發揮教師在社會化引導的權威性，也促使課堂教學活動中老師無奈擔任獨角戲，挫傷老師后續教學活動的積極性。第四，手機提供了豐富的娛樂和新鮮資訊，相對于大學教學穩定的教學發揮，有天然的吸引力，自然產生了兩者教學互動中不可避免的“注意力轉移”。第五，普遍相對優越的成長環境和相對簡單的社會閱歷促使大學生在所學所用方面帶有主觀的個人偏好，沒有意識到社會化技能對社會人的重要性，也就缺失了求學的動力。
二、本門課程教學中的制約因素
現代推銷學實務是市場營銷專業中偏實踐技能型的學科，對場景化的教學提出相當高的要求，但現實有不可避免的制約因素。一是真實的推銷實踐是多樣化，不同的場景在不同的階段不同的人群都提出藝術而靈活處理的要求。而現實的教學環境雖有模擬推銷環節，但還是受到教學設施的限制，無法大量提供簡要有針對性的實踐感知。二是當下普遍可以通過模擬推銷環節來加強學生對理論的理解，但學生往往以學生心態和規范理解推銷環節的種種處理思路，真實感和角色體驗會降低，自然降低了“知行合一”的綜合領悟效果。而社會真實的推銷實踐是個人需要具備綜合的知識、能力和素質要求。這相應的會要求在模擬環境要求學生的基礎能力例如社交能力、口頭表達能力具備一定的基礎。但是班級學生性格多樣化，都有各自的一些暫時短板，例如怯場例如表達能力不順暢等制約因素，這就影響了模擬環節的有序有效進行，特別是學生的參與意愿和動力。因此學生基礎性能力偏差在實際教學環節中帶有一定的挑戰，這是推進教學預期效果的另一制約因素。
三、現代推銷學實務教學設計思路
雖然現實教學不能做到盡善盡美，但是把握學生的真實背景、結合課程的性質和能力要求而知己知彼，有目的在教學環境中因勢利導，創造條件，也一定程度上可以提高教學效果。對此，大致的設計思路如下：1.導入推銷無處不在的觀念。這種觀念需要不斷的重復和強調，但不是純粹口頭空洞的表達，而是多方面生活場景化的導入。例如推銷不是工作才需要才會出現場景，也不是純粹的有形產品和商業化服務，而是無處不在。而落腳點就在學生普遍的生活點滴以及媒體熱門話題的引申，范圍涉及學生密切相關的人際交往、玩樂、購物等環節。在場景化描述后做簡單深入的原理再現，引導學生從日用而不只到意識的日用而知。努力提高課堂知識的趣味性，真實性，以及實用性感知。而這類話題必須以學生為中心，老師需要關注學生所偏好的興趣和痛點，才能因為熟悉而有親切感的參與動力。2.善于利用手機的信息優勢。雖然手機成為當下影響課堂教學秩序的一大因素，學生注意力普遍不集中的根源。但是利弊全在老師主導和有效的管控。移動互聯網帶來豐富的信息資源，利用好可以有效的解決課程講授過程中的案例缺乏問題，也能夠做到人人參與。所以老師可以在備課環節中利用手機這一媒介作為信息和注意力引導，從而降低課堂案例背景資料的消化時間，提高課堂信息傳播的效率和互動的積極性。誠然，手機案例的導入需要兼顧學生興趣和課程的專業和約束，兼顧信息的實效性和趣味性，從而在符合學生追求新奇的背景下做有效的導引。3.善于設置合理生活化的任務。既然推銷無處不在，這為學生通過身邊行為設置任務安排帶來了便利性。例如引導通過學生在線下線上的購物環節中，有目的的拍攝和記錄。在不侵犯個人隱私的情況下，作為鮮活的案例放在課堂，讓同學們廣泛討論，促進從生活中來而從生活中學習，老師適當結合自己專業優勢和課堂教學目標做引導，提高學生的興趣和討論空間。合理生活化的任務不是局限于購物，目的是通過案例的再現和主人公意識的代入，帶動學生廣泛留意生活中的推銷行為，也在討論中讓各方得到學習領悟。誠然，這需要教師需要提前合理的收取學生代表性的案例，以及在不斷的改善中提高同學們提供案例的針對性和代表性。4.善于利用游戲化導入職業能力自學自助端口?，F代推銷實務對綜合能力的要求很高，而課堂在提升相當有限，一是專業性板塊內容多導入會打亂現有教學秩序，二是專業性得不到有效的保障。以提升學生口頭表達能力為例，涉及演講與口才的內容繁多，并且教學教法不容易有限展開，過分的輸出還會導致學生在有限時間的課程上淺嘗輒止。而學生課堂外的時間充裕，只要導入激勵得當會帶來學生自主學習的空間和動力。而目前互聯網有相當富有參與性的內容板塊，為自主自學提供了可能。在導入的過程中，通過適當的游戲化參與調動學生的好奇心，老師做好適當的解析影響工作，并保證在甄選和符合教學中的情境下，推送相應的端口給學生，讓學生因自己偏好選擇突破點和學習任務導向。規避學生在內容碎片化的網絡信息時代無所適從的情景。用第二課堂聯動課堂板塊，豐富能力提升的內容和學習矩陣。
四、總結
現代推銷實務的教學因教師和學生個性和現實環境差異，有不同的教學設計。而核心在于教師以學生為中心，以學生的興趣攝入節點，善于利用互聯網，合理引導和設置教學任務，推動學生自學和參與性教學，提高學生的知識和能力素質。
參考文獻：
1.蒿麗萍.課程教學策略設計與行動路徑[J].內蒙古電大學刊,2017(2):90-93.
推銷學范文2
[關鍵詞]知識的推銷；獨立思考；教學手段
[中圖分類號]G640 [文獻標識碼]A [文章編號]1671-5918（2015）15-0014-02
引言
當代大學生一般是“90后”，追求新潮和時尚。在思想和行為方面存在著許多矛盾，如獨立與依賴的并存；自信與脆弱的并存；個性生活與團隊生活的并存；想要學習與學習目標不明確的并存。而傳統的大學教學方法很難提起學生的學習興趣，教學難以收到應有的效果。
高校不僅是學生們的求學之地，也是他們踏上社會的前站，高校教師不僅要授業解惑，更要教給學生做人的道理。由于師生間的距離及學校教學刻板的制度，在過去，學生會選擇默默忍受，可如今的大學生卻未必會買賬，這樣學生就很難真正融入到校園中，學習成了一種敷衍，要改變這種現狀，我們就要把教學看作一個師生合作的舞臺，而不是強迫學習的場所。把自己從一個從強塞知識的教師，變成一個滿足學生的求知欲并傳播愛的使者。這樣引入“知識的推銷”是很必要的。
一、知識的推銷必須以“雙贏思維”為基礎
知識的推銷是一門“雙贏”的教學藝術，老師得到心理滿足，而學生獲得知識，知識的推銷者歡喜，知識的獲取者得意。在知識的推銷成功的過程中體現出的就是一個典型的“雙贏”模式。
老師在“雙贏思維”中不僅表現在實際地為學生考慮，他們是不是真的需要你的知識，而且還運用于生活和學習中，讓學生受益，從而自然完成知識的推銷。如果從學生的角度考慮，只是一心讓學生接受你要傳授的知識，但思維的角度不同，沒為學生考慮，總是潛意識地先從自己的角度出發，是為學生好，那么不管老師所說的話，再親切、再謙虛，表現得再真誠，都難以消除“強迫”兩字，所以，對一個優秀老師來說，“雙贏思維”就意味著不只把學生看成一個單方向接受知識的個體，而是要真正地把他們看成需要理解、幫助的朋友，給予學生力所能及的幫助。
二、知識推銷的初忠是為學生解惑
一切教學策略的運用，也旨在通過滿足學生的求知欲望和解決學生的疑惑，老師應該意識到，教師是一種非常崇高的職業，老師的努力不應該放在如何去完成自己的教學任務，而是應該協助學生使他們的需求得到滿足，幫助他們解惑，讓學生的學習過程更加有趣和享受，然后自己再完成教學任務。總之，假如教學要有什么成功秘訣的話，就是設身處地替學生著想。我們不是單純的教學，而是為教給學生解惑的方法。
而要幫助學生解決問題，首先要了解學生的問題及疑惑。只有知道學生需求之后，才能傳授給學生滿足其需求的知識，或使學生相信他們確實存在著對老師所傳授知識的需要。那我們就要先研究學生的信息，也可以和學生對話與交流，在仔細傾聽中發現學生關注的、在意的和所困擾的信息，我們就從所收集到的信息進行組織教學內容。要讓學生接受自己的教學方案，還需要讓他們意識到知識的重要性，發現了學生的忽視之后，通過提出激發需求的問題，將這些忽視明確化，從而引起學生的高度重視，以提高學生用所學知識解決相應問題的緊迫性。
三、知識推銷的步驟
（一）用愛使學生敞開心扉
愛能使學生敞開心扉。雖然我在掌握了愛的藝術之前，只算一名普通教師。但我要讓愛成為我最有效的方法，因為沒有人能抵擋它的威力。所以我認為教師最重要的品質就是愛心。
為什么有些老師會驚訝學生會做出很多和他們不相符的事，老師和學生的距離是那么的大，讓學生和老師間很陌生，有時學生對老師各種引導會有些抵觸，會讓老師有種感覺：老師指東，學生卻要往西，追其原因就是老師沒有很好的運用愛的力量，我們不能一味的對學生說教，而是要貼心的關愛和呵護，效果就會大不相同。我們如果改變一下觀念，調整看問題的角度，就會看到不同的一片天。
老師的作用是幫助學生獲取知識，只要有足夠的愛心，就可以成為學生心中最有影響力的老師，讓學生的負面的情緒與老師的愛接觸后，瞬間就消融了。愛心是老師與學生溝通感情的橋梁。
（二）用教學激情感染學生的求知欲
實踐證明，教師自身的激情對教學成功所起的作用占80%，而教學知識只占20%。很多新教師雖然沒有太多的教學技巧，卻能不斷地創造不錯的教學效果，最主要的原因就是他們對自己的工作充滿激情。激情可使教師精力充沛，超常工作。
與其說成功取決于人的才能，不如說取決于人的激情。一個教師如果不能從每天的工作中找到樂趣，而是為生存才不得不從事教學工作，才不得不完成教師的職責，這樣的教師的教學注定是要失敗的。
因此教師如果沒有了激情，即使掌握了良好的教學技巧也無法取得教學成功。如果用火柴和蠟燭來比喻教師和學生，則教師就像一根火柴，學生就像一根蠟燭。如果教師不先點燃自己，又怎么可能點燃和照亮別人呢？要成為一個充滿激情的教師，或者重新拾回自己的激情，可以從以下幾個方面去培養自己。
一是要有事業心，熱愛自己的工作。激情是一種重要的力量。也許你的精力不是那么充沛，也許你的個性不是那么堅強，但是一旦你有了激情，并好好利用它，所有的這一切都有可以克服。一個人如果不熱愛自己所從事的工作，即使他擁有非凡的形象和高學歷，他也無法取得事業成功。
二是好奇心。做任何一件事情，當你有了好奇心的時候，也會推動激情。所以，遇到難解的事情，要不斷地問自己“為什么”，用你對“為什么”的孜孜探究來保鮮自己的好奇心。
三是興趣。即指你對你所從事的教學工作的興趣。對于這一點，我們都深有感觸。無論做任何一個工作，如果你對它本身沒有什么興趣，只是為了那份微薄的可以糊口的薪水，你就不會投入太多的精力和激情，也就很難在這個行業有所作為。
四是知識。如果沒有知識，激情和能力不可能持久。如果不盡快地擴充大腦的“內存”，面對越來越多的競爭對手和科技的日新月異，你會變得不知所措。所以，千萬不要停止學習。
五是自信。你必須相信你所做的都是正確的，作為一個教師，有信心不見得會成功，但沒信心一定會輸到底。沮喪者爭取到沮喪的命運，樂觀者爭取到樂觀的命運。不少的成功人士都暗示自己；我是第一號人物。這個暗示既是對自己的激勵，也是自己的奮斗目標。但是，持久的自信心不是靠教師的盲目自大或他人的空洞說教與鼓勵就能產生的。教師幫助自己建立持久的自信心，就是要了解自己的教學內容。這樣才能對學生進行生動的講授，進而影響學生對知識的接受及掌握知識的信心。
有這樣一句名言：“人的意志可以發揮無限的力量，可以把夢想變為現實?！闭f的是一種信念、一種信心，可以把人的潛力挖掘出來。不放棄成功的信念，并堅持不懈地追求下去，才能真正達到目的。
六是目的。你的目的應當不只是賺錢。人生短短幾十年，讓自己的人生有一點不悔的追求？請你相信，在你追求事業和人生目標的過程中，金錢會根據你付出心血和努力的程度源源而來。
七是運用這樣一個心理暗示：每天對自己說：“我要充滿激情！”同時，讓這個自我激勵深入到潛意識中去。讓這種潛意識激勵你的行動，變消極為積極。
（三）用超人的勇氣去開辟教學的新局面
教師要面對許多不同性格、不同教育背景的學生，而且還要面對被學生抵觸的壓力，這就要求教師必須具有常人不具有的勇氣。如果不是勇氣十足的話，就很難在這一行里干出名堂來。該如何鼓起勇氣呢：有這樣一段話：“敢于教學，敢于表現，相信自己，心有底氣，要有勇氣，永不泄氣；丟掉面子，忘掉身份，丟掉膽怯，去掉雜念，一心一意，不怕失敗。
推銷學范文3
1“現代推銷技巧”課程傳統的教學方式存在的問題
11培養模式不能很好地適應社會的要求
《教育部關于全面提高高等教育質量的若干意見》中明確把“創新人才培養模式”作為提升人才培養水平、推進文化傳承創新的重要舉措。而社會經濟的發展也要求高職院校要依據市場發展的規律，以就業為導向、以能力培?B為主線、以培養應用型人才為目標，創新高職院校人才的培養模式，使高職院校的人才培養與社會需求結合起來，為社會提供真正具備就業能力、實踐能力、創新能力的高技能人才。目前，由于高職院校仍然使用學科體現加實踐環節。來組合人才培養模式，導致人才培養目標定位是模糊的，教學模式仍以教材為主，用課堂教學方式、以理論講授為重點。就會使理論與實踐課之間的比例失調，達不到理想的教學效果。
教學計劃缺乏彈性，有些學校的“現代推銷技巧”課程的教學大綱與教學計劃，在內容選取、開設時間上幾年都沒有變化，導致教學內容陳舊落后，缺少實用性。由于教材都是幾年以前編寫的，教材中的案例、實訓，與現在社會的實際情況相差懸殊。大部分教材只講究學科體系，采取工學結合培養模式來編寫的教材更是少之又少，實用性不強。
12教學方法與學生特性不符
教學方法比較單一。大部分教師都是從學校畢業，就到學校任教，缺乏到企業實習的經歷，一味地對理論知識進行灌輸，和企業實際生產經營相關的課程聯系得少，學生對課程缺少興趣。即便采取案例、討論、啟發等教學方法，可是由于教師缺乏解決市場營銷問題的實踐經驗，沒有更好的理論與實踐結合的經歷，對案例教學的組織駕馭不夠，課堂教學的吸引力低。目前高職院校的學生大都是性格活潑、好動。學生更看重的是老師的人格魅力及老師講話的幽默度。老師在教學活動中，就要想盡各種辦法來調動學生的積極性。如果還按照傳統的教學方法，單向地灌輸理論知識，而忽視了學生的拓展思維的訓練，勢必會導致“教”與“學”的不對接。沒有開發出學生的潛質，降低了學生的學習興趣。
13實訓條件不充分
“現代推銷技巧”課程是和消費者、市場、企業聯系比較密切的一門課程，多數院校通過購買一些營銷類教學軟件，在校內進行實訓，來提高學生的實踐能力。但這種單純的軟件模擬教學，只能幫助學生了解營銷活動過程，對學生的實際經驗沒有太大的幫助。社會上很多企業，由于一些特殊原因，在營銷工作中學生無法接觸實質性的內容，社會上雖然有很多校企合作、產學合作方面的實習基地，基本都是形同虛設。學生的實踐需求滿足不了，只能在課堂上進行簡單模擬，使原本計劃的實訓內容無法完成，自然也就達不到預期的教學目的。
14考試方式不科學
對“現代推銷技巧”課程的考核，很多學校采用的是閉卷考試為主、實訓成績為輔?？荚噧热葜饕墙處熋}，試題是在教學大綱、考試大綱的要求下，主客觀題型均勻分布，這種考核只能檢驗學生對理論知識的掌握情況，而學生職業的能力無從判斷。而實訓成績，主要是根據學生在課堂過程中通過分組的形式，進行案例分析或者是課堂模擬演練，由老師給每位同學打分。這種考核方法不全面，導致學生上課不認真，對實訓成績也不在乎，無法提高自身的推銷能力。
2“現代推銷技巧”課程教學改革的主要內容
21教學內容要真實化，符合高職院校的培養理念
高職院校管理專業圍繞職業能力培養，構建課程體系，將相應的職業資格標準的內容納入教學之中。實現學生修完專業課程，便能形成適應某種職業需求的中、高級技術能力。同時，注重校企共同開發課程，突出課程的綜合性、實用性。根據市場的需要，營銷專業應減少一些純理論性的內容，增加一些實踐性、實驗性的知識，達到使專業與社會的需求無縫對接。目前學校實行認知實習、課程實訓、綜合實訓、頂崗實習四個環節有機結合，培養學生職業崗位能力，有效地促進了理論與實踐的融合以及知識向能力的轉化。
通過工學結合，可以使“現代推銷技巧”課程與企業的實際聯系起來，體現“以就業為導向，以能力培養為核心”的教育理念，滿足企業和學生的需要。這種模式強調學校與企業互動，生產與學習相結合，突出培養學生的職業素質與職業能力，學生畢業后可直接上崗，企業滿意度與社會認同度較高，較好地反映了高職院校人才培養規格的本質與特征，這是新形勢下高等職業教育改革的重要方向，也是加快培養高技能人才的根本出路。
22教學方法要靈活多樣
在教學方法上，努力實現融“教、學、做”為一體。所有帶實踐內容的課程授課地點全部安排在理實一體化教室。課堂上，教師采用任務驅動、角色扮演、分組教學等多種教學方法，調動學生學習積極性，提高了教學效果。讓學生知道，學習過程不再是聽講過程，而是行動過程，老師給出任務，學生運用理論知識自己解決問題?？梢詫⑷鄬W生分成若干個學習小組，每個小組選擇一個真實的產品，來進行現場推銷，讓學生分別扮演顧客和推銷人員，推銷人員通過觀察顧客，了解顧客的心理，展開有針對性的推銷，同時顧客提出異議時，推銷人員能夠運用一些技巧及時地化解異議。學生是徒弟，老師是師傅，邊學邊做。把在實踐中遇到的問題，帶回到課堂上來解決，通過提問、答疑等方式，理論聯系實際，提高學生分析、解決問題的能力。
23完善實訓基地建設
首先，加大校內實訓基地的建設，對現有的基地進行完善和拓展，保證學生在校內實訓能夠順利開展。其次，要走出學校，多多和企業溝通，給學生爭取更多的校外實訓機會，讓學生能夠真正地“走出去”，在實際的工作崗位上得到鍛煉。
24建立科學的教學考核方式
在期末考核方面，我們由原來的純粹的閉卷轉變為，閉卷、過程考核、實訓相結合的方式。注重學生參與、體驗、感受、實踐、創新的過程。所以學生不光要掌握一些理論知識，更重要的是要學會自己動手、動腦，能自己實際解決問題。
3改革的初步成效及存在的主要問題
通過改革，取得了一些成效，比如，師生關系比以前更加和協了。老師不再只是講授者，而是變成了師傅，在不同階段承擔著各種角色，使學生能夠真正融入到課堂，增加了交流的機會。另外，學生的學習興趣和綜合能力也得到了提高。課堂氣氛活躍了，學生積極地想表現自己，認真地完成每項任務。
推銷學范文4
悲劇是一種起源于希臘的戲劇形式，長期以來，悲劇的主人公都為帝王或出身高貴的上流階層?，F代劇作家阿瑟•米勒憑借自己多年的經驗與非凡的洞察力，提出了自己獨特的現代悲劇觀，他打破了傳統悲劇的僵化模式，更加實用地繼承與發展了悲劇形式。米勒獨具建樹的悲劇觀，在其杰作《推銷員之死》中得到了完美詮釋。本文試圖從悲劇理論出發研究米勒的悲劇觀，再通過對其代表作《推銷員之死》的分析，具體研究該劇中米勒獨特悲劇觀的體現。在《推銷員之死》作家米勒繼承并革新了傳統的悲劇理論，認為普通人對生活有更深刻全面的理解，他們才是最適合的悲劇主人公。在該劇中，體現了米勒獨特的悲劇觀。推銷員之死在戲劇結構，象征手法的應用與主人公的性格方面繼承了傳統悲劇，而在題材的選擇既主人公的普通性，悲劇的成因及悲劇所體現的樂觀思想方面發展則打破傳統，發展了傳統的悲劇理論。
關鍵詞：阿瑟•米勒， 悲劇觀，《推銷員之死》，發展與繼承
ABSTRACT
Tragedy is a drama genre originated in Greek. For a long time, it is an accepted rule that the tragic hero must be the kings, nobles or protagonists with high rank. However, Miller states his unique view of tragedy, which both inheritates and develops the theory of traditional tragedy. That is, Arthur Miller breaks the mold of the formulaic tragedies of previous era since Aristotle and redefines that the common people are as apt a subject for tragedies in its highest sense as kings were. Typically, Miller’s tragic view is presented in his masterpiece—Death of a Salesman. On the basis of the traditional theory of tragedy, this essay aims at pursuing Arthur Miller’s unique view of modern tragedy embodied in Death of Salesman, which is both the inheritance and the development of the traditional theory of tragedy.
In this play, Miller fully practices his unique view of tragedy. In such parts as the drama structure, the use of symbolism and the characteristics of the protagonist, Miller follows the theory of traditioanl tragedy. However, he breaks the archaic theory and makes great develoment to the theory of modern tragedy in the following aspects: the subject matter, the tragedy causes and the ending enlightment.
Keywords：Arthur Miller, Death of a Salesman, tragedy, succession and development
Contents
1.Introduction 1
2.Traditional View of Tragedy 2
3. Miller's View of Tragedy 3
3.1 The Great Influence of His Early Experience on the Forming of Miller’s Tragic View 3
3.2 Arthur Miller’s Unique View of Modern Tragedy 4
4. Miller’s Inheritance and Development of Traditional Tragic View in Death of a Salesman 5
4.1 Miller’s Inheritance of Traditional Tragic View 5
4.1.1 Arthur Miller’s Acceptance of Traditional Drama Structure 6
4.1.2 Traditional Symbolism Applied in Death of a Salesman 7
4.1.3 Characteristics of Traditional Tragic Protagonist Embodied in Death Of a Salesman 8
4.2 Miller’s Development of Traditional Tragedy in Death of a Salesman 9
4.2.1 Little Man as Protagonist in Death of a Salesman 9
4.2.2 The Personal and Social Elements Being the Causes of Tragedy 10
4.2.3 Optimistic View of Tragic Ending Reflected in Death of a Salesman 12
5.Conclusion 14
Acknowledgements 15
References 16
1. Introduction
Arthur Miller, a prominent figure in American theatre, is considered by audiences and scholars as one of America’s greatest playwrights with his plays lauded throughout the world. Owing to his unique view of tragedy which is best demonstrated in his magnum opus Death of a Salesman. Arthur Miller made great contribution to the development of the modern drama. Death of a Salesman relates the story of Willy Loman, a down-on-his-luck traveling salesman. In order to cope with his failures in life, he retreats to the past in his mind and seems to be losing touch with reality. He tries to relive the good times, but keeps coming up against things that went wrong. His family tries to help him by lying about their prospects, but when Loman loses his job to which he has devoted his lifetime, he becomes desperate. His depression is exacerbated by the guilt he feels from a past infidelity which has estranged him from his older son, Biff. Rather than accepting the fact that his life has been a failure and that Biff is not interested in big business, Loman decides to commit suicide hoping that the insurance money will help Biff become successful. The play ends with his family and only friend, Charley, grieving by his graveside. The play reflects Miller’s unique tragic view thoroughly. In order to get a better understanding of Miller’s unique views and advancement, a brief review of traditional tragedy is necessary.
2. Traditional View of Tragedy
Tragedy is a form of art based on human suffering that offers its audience pleasure. [1]67 While most cultures have developed forms that provoke this paradoxical response, tragedy refers to a specific tradition of drama that has played a unique and important role in the history of Western civilization. That tradition has been multiple and discontinuous, yet the term has often been used to invoke a powerful effect of cultural identity and historical continuity. Tragedy was Greek’s contribution to the human civilization. It has undergone the process of birth, development, enlighten and decline after it first came into being 2500 years ago. [2]
There once emerged two major Western tragedies in the history: Greek Tragedy and Elizabethan Tragedy. 4-5
Greek tragedy did not have a integrated theory until the appearance of Aristotle’s
Poetic. Aristotle’s description in Poetic provides insight into the theoretical basis of Greek tragedy. He raised almost all the elements such as the nature of the tragic protagonist, the emotional effect on the spectators, the tragic flaw and so on. In his masterpiece Poetic, he defined the tragic hero as one of noble birth, and prescribed principle that the tragic hero should suffer a major reversal in fortune due to his tragic flaw, and then learned from his fall to elevation. Aristotle considered the plot to be the core of the tragedy and character stood the next place. From his standpoint, the goal of a tragedy was not suffering but the knowledge that issued from it. In other words, a tragedy should invoke a catharsis in the audience. It was a purging of pity and fear which the tragedy built up in the audience. [5]49-60
In traditional tragedy the tragic hero are always in the relationships between human and God, human and fate. Their suffering and misfortune closely link with their high position and nobility.
3. Miller’s View of Tragedy
The discussion about genre has been complicated by the fact that the word “tragedy” has acquired the sanctity of an honorific title, so that critics are often hesitant to bestow the term on plays dealing with ordinary life or with the “common man”. Consequently, playwrights who have focus on the ordinary and the commonplace and especially those who have opposed the necessary fatalism and mysticism of classical tragedy, have been faced with problem of trying to reconcile contemporary ideas with traditional tragedy. [6]126Arthur Miller is among them; his works have become for many critics the quintessential modern tragedy.
3.1The Great Influence of His Early Experience on the Forming of Miller’s Tragic View
There is no doubt that a person’s views of world and concepts of life are greatly influenced by his experiences. 55Therefore, it is essential to learn about his experience and factors impacting him emotionally or psychologically for the sake of better understanding his view of tragedy.
Miller’s early circumstances were comfortable, but the crash of 1929 and the Depression were the major influence on his developing views of life. Actually, the 1929 crash impressed Miller greatly, “The hidden laws of fate lurked not only in the characters of people, but equally if not more imperiously in the world beyond the family parlor. Out there were the big gods, the ones whose disfavor could turn a proud and prosperous and dignified man into a frightened shell of a man whatever he thought of himself, and whatever he decided or didn’t decide to do.” [9]36
If the economic effects of the Depression had begun to awaken his social conscience, the social conditions in the Seventh Avenue district shocked him. The arrogance, cruelty, hardness and vulgarity of the buyers affected him in a way he never forgot. and finally became the material of his later famous play—Death of a Salesman. Miller’s experiences had a great influence on his view of tragedy. Owing to this, his unique view of tragedy was shaped.
3.2Arthur Miller’s Unique View of Modern Tragedy
Arthur Miller has been seriously concerned with the study of tragic mode, and his
view of tragedy mainly includes the following aspects.
First and foremost, unlike the traditional tragedy which emphasizes on the nobility of tragic protagonists, Miller believes that “the common man is as apt a subject for tragedy in his highest sense as kings were. On the face of this, it ought to be obvious in the light of modern psychiatry, which bases its analysis upon classic formulations, such as the Oedipus and Orestes complexes, for instance, which were enacted by royal beings, but which apply to everyone in similar situation.” [10]435Therefore, we can find obvious evident in his play. Miller creates many characters such as salesman, farmer, docker porter, clerk, policeman and prostitute in his works and most of them are very common people in society.
Second, trag ic flaw used to be thought as the main reason for the misfortune and sufferings of the protagonist, but in Miller’s eyes, the root of tragedy should consist in “man’s inherent unwillingness to remain passive in the face of what he conceives to be a challenge to his dignity, his image of his rightful status and social reality”. 453
Miller fully understands the interdependent relationship between the society and individuals: the society is made up of individuals and molds them. In other words, certain individuals are the mirror of the society. As a result, the fate of an individual must have certain universality and the vice versa.
Third, it is almost an established concept that tragedy is of necessity allied to pessimism, however, Miller stated that “in true tragedy implies more optimism in its author than does comedy, and that its final result ought to be the reinforcement of the onlooker’s brightest opinions of human animal. For if it is true to say that in essence the tragic hero is intent upon claiming his whole due as a personality and if this struggle must be total and without reservation, then it automatically demonstrates the indestructible will of man to achieve his humanity. The possibility of victory must be there.” [10]454
Miller’s tragic views are fully elucidated in Death of a Salesman. This essay will mainly focus the practice of Miller’s tragic view in Death of a Salesman.
4. Miller’s Inheritance and Development of Traditional Tragic View in Death of a Salesman
As a unique form of literature, drama has its own components and characteristics. When appreciated from aesthetic perspective, it is generally illustrated in four aspects: drama conflict, protagonist, structure, and end of the tragedy.
Death of a Salesman, as one of Miller’s masterpieces, fully embodies his views of tragedy. It is questionable whether Death of a Salesman is enough and of sufficient magnitude to be considered as high tragedy in Aristotelian sense. According to Aristotle, the action of tragedy to be serious must be profound both in its subject matter and in its spiritual discernment. [11]
4.1 Miller’s Inheritance of Traditional Tragic View
Asked which playwrights he admired most when he was young, Miller applied: “First the Greeks, for their magnificent form, the symmetry. Half the time I couldn’t really repeat the story because the characters in the etymology were completely blank to me. I had no background at that time to know really what was involved in these plays, but the architecture was clear. That form has never left me. I suppose it just got burned in.” [7]236
Over the years, Miller came to see that it was not only the form that he had learned from the traditional Greek, but also a sense of nature and function of drama itself. That is the reason why Miller has inherited certain aspects of traditional theory of tragedy. When it comes to its actual practice in Death of a Salesman, it is not difficult to find out that the in terms of drama structure, expression and tragic hero’s characteristics, Miller succeeded the traditional tragedy. [12]165-266
4.1.1 Arthur Miller’s Acceptance of Traditional Drama Structure
Classic tragedy emphasized that the elements of the structure: objects, events, the time and place should be highly concentrated. In order to adapt to the stage performance, the Greek tragedy always began with the climax or crisis and then disclosed the past by reviewing. [13]Such as the typical Greek tragedy Oedipus, the whole thing occurred only in half days, location had always been at the royal Palace. The stage showed the Oedipus king investigated the murderer, who killed the old king, and the events of the past four decades gradually revealed and when the final truth was disclosed, it also came along with the outbreak of tragedy. Like the Greek tragedy, the structure of Death of a Salesman is also concentrated. The play started with Willy back home:
From the right, Willy Loman, the salesman, enters carrying two large samples. The flute plays on. He hears but is not aware of it. He is past sixty years of age, dressed quietly. Even as he crosses the stage to the doorway of the house, his exhaustion is apparent. [14]5
Miller only intercepts the last day of life, basically against the backdrop of Willy’s home. Through reminiscing or actually Willy’s consciousness, Miller disclosures the past events and Willy’s depression, struggle and despair before suicide.
Like the traditional tragedy, its structure contains the beginning, development, climax, end, and sudden turning and discovery. Two clues coexist in the same story: external event development constitutes external structure. Willy returns home—making a plan—bankrupting—committing suicide; Psychological activity of recalling the past and imagination of his brother Ben constitutes the internal structure. Both the external and internal event pushes the plot to develop and supplement each other, successfully reflecting the hero’s character and the theme.
The structure of events and the nature of its form are the direct reflection of Willy’s way of thinking at this moment of his life. He lives in his own world full of contradictions in pursuing success of career, and in evaluating his position in the society.
Friction, collision, and tension between past and present are the heart of the play’s particular structure. [15]155
In Death of a Salesman, Miller not only describes what happened to Willy’s life in 24 hours, but also portrays Willy’s whole life. Just as Miller describes “it is certain private conversation in two acts and a requiem”.
4.1.2 Traditional Symbolism Applied in Death of a Salesman
It is a writing way of traditional tragedy to link the theme and structure of the drama by using symbolism such as analogy, metaphor and imagery, [18]Miller also follows this tradition in Death of a Salesman. A typical case in this play is Willy’s strange obsession with the condition of Linda’s stockings.
Linda There’s nothing to make up, dear. You’ re donning fine, better than—
Willy [noticing her mending] what’s that?
Linda Just mending my stockings. They’re so expensive—
Willy 86
The stockings foreshadow his later flashback to Biff’s discovery of him and The Woman in their Boston hotel room. The teenage Biff accuses Willy of giving away Linda’s stockings to the woman. Stockings assume a metaphorical weight as the symbol of betrayal and infidelity. New stockings are important for both Willy’s pride in being financially successful and thus able to support his family and for Willy’s ability to ease his guilt about, and suppress the memory of his betrayal of Linda and Biff.
Another symbol is seed.
Willy [After a slight pause] Tell me—is there a seed store in the neighborhood?
……
Stanley Seeds? You mean like to plant?
……
Willy 316
Seeds represent for Willy the opportunity to prove the worth of his labor, both as a salesman and a father. His desperate, nocturnal attempt to grow vegetables signifies his shame about barely being able to support the family and having nothing to leave his children when he passes. Willy feels that he has worked hard but fears that he will not be able to help his offspring any more than his own abandoning father helped him. The seeds also symbolize Willy’s sense of failure with Biff. Despite the formula of American Dream for success, which Willy considers infallible, Willy’s efforts to cultivate and nurture Biff went awry. Realizing that his all-American football star has turned into a lazy bum, Willy takes Biff’s failure and lack of ambition as a reflection of his abilities as a father.
4.1.3 Characteristics of Traditional Tragic Protagonist Embodied in Death of a Salesman
In the thirteenth chapter of Poetics, Aristotle pointed out that tragic figure is neither a good nor bad person, but between these two kinds. This kind of people does not have much of a virtue, nor it is very fair, they have flaws.
“The flaw, or the crack in the character, is really nothing –and need be nothing, but his inherent unwillingness to remain passive in the face of what he conceives to be a challenge to his dignity, his image of rightful status.” [10]494
Willy is in this category. Although frustrated in his business and earning little, Willy traveled a lot and does a lot of road business as a way of pursuing his dignity all his lifetime and a way of meeting the need of the family. For the purpose of being able to stay in the company, Willy even humbly asked a favor of his boss—Howard and willingly reduced his salary to a meager level.
Willy I tell ya why, Howard. The kids are all grown up, y’know. I don’t need much any more. If I could take home ---well, sixty- five dollars a week, I could swing.
……
Willy Howard, all I need to set my table is fifty dollars a week.
……
Willy If I had only forty dollars a week----that’s all I’d need. Forty dollars, Howard. [14]204-205
After Willy became jobless, he went to Charley, his neighbor and friend, to borrow fifty dollars every week and brought the money home to Linda, lying that the money was his salary with the intention of concealing the truth that he was fired. However, when he was offered a job, Willy rejected it out of his poor dignity and pride. For Willy was unwilling to admit that he was a failure.
Willy also tried his best to support his family on condition that he never lost his dignity. When he was finally reminded of the insurance money, he felt that his dignity as a “success” deserted him, so in despair he committed suicide.
On balance, to a certain extent, Willy’s character was similar to the traditional tragic hero.
4.2 Miller’s Development of Traditional Tragedy in Death of a Salesman
The big success and popularity of Death of Salesman is largely attributed to Miller’s development of traditional view of tragedy and his breakthrough of the formulaic mold of previous tragedies. The following aspects are regarded as the best interpretation of Miller’s development of traditional view of tragedy.
4.2.1 Little Man as Protagonist in Death of a Salesman
According to Aristotle, the tragic hero should be one of noble birth, but Miller looks at the problem from a practical rather than a theoretical angle. “……Tragedy has to grow and develop to meet the changing needs of the modern society”, he stresses.435
Willy is a common salesman and unsuccessful salesman in fact. He has devoted all his life and energy to pursue the material success and wants to hit big in business. He regards the success in career as the most important thing to gain his dignity and happiness, and gives it the premium over others in his life. However, he does not succeed in his career. In order to keep the daily life, he has to borrow money from his neighbor Charley. Although the company he has worked for nearly thirty-six years thrives, he becomes poorer and poorer, for he does not have a stable salary but only a commission like a jackaroo and at last he is fired. At home, he is neither an ideal father nor an ideal husband as well. As a father, with the faith in the supremacy of the material over spiritual, he transfers his blinded conviction in to his sons
Willy ……Because the man who makes an appearance in the business world, the man who creates personal interest, is the man who gets ahead, be liked and you will never want. [14]97
And when Biff stolen, Willy did not pointed out but even encourages his theft.
Charley Listen, if they steal any more from that building the watchman’ll put the cops on them.
Willy You shoulda seen the lumber they brought home last week. At last a dozen six-by-tens worth all kinds a money. [14]116
Which indirectly caused Biff’s peculiarity of stealing in his later life?
As a husband, Willy is a typical male chauvinist, and he had a love affair with another woman and betrayed his wife.
Besides, unlike the traditional tragedy such as Sophocles and Shakespeare dealt with noble minds and hearts which raised the actions of their heroes above the ordinary, the play also lacks sufficient magnitude for high tragedy. Willy’s aimless wanderings of mind and spirit, shrouds as they are in the murky mist of illusions can hardly be reckoned above the ordinary manner of things human. It is doubtful that Willy possesses the moral integrity or spiritual stature indicated by Aristotle.
4.2.2 The Personal and Social Elements Being the Causes of Tragedy
In the theory of the traditional tragedy misfortune was brought about not by vice or depravity, but for some error or frailty. The character failed because he tried to overcome his flaw but did not succeed.
However, in the causes of the fate of the tragic hero, Miller thinks there are many reasons contributing to the fate of the protagonist. Not only the personal sides but also the social sides, and both play essential role in the causes of tragic fate of the protagonist. In Death of a Salesman, the causes of the Willy’s tragic fate mainly include two parts: his own tragic flaws and the social elements.
It can not be denied that the hero himself plays an important role in it. In Willy’s tragic fate, his false values about the life and society are one of the main causes that lead to his tragic fate. Willy has looked for a right position and struggled his dignity with a desperate earnest all his life. Unfortunately, he failed to get security in the world, and got lost in his own illusion.
Willy attached his life to a faith which in the blessed country everyone has the chance to be successful through his effort. He regarded Dave Single man as the idol of his career,
Willy ……I met a salesman in the Parker House. His name was Dave Singleman--- And when I saw that, I realized that selling was the greatest career a man could want. [14]202
Willy always holds the view that he can succeed if he has the determination. He firmly sticks to the idea that the meaning of his life can only be derived from the society and willingly choses it as the standard to measure him. He assumes that success fell inevitably to the man with the right smiles, the best line, the most charm, the man who is well liked.
In addition, his characteristics contradicts, he is immature in his mind which is shown in his so called pride. When Willy was fired, he actually badly needed a job to support the family. But when his friend offered him a job Willy refused, because he was unwilling to admit that Charley was more excellent than him.
Willy I just can’t work for you, Charley.
Charley What’re you, jealous of me?
Willy I can’t work for you, that’ all, don’t ask me why.
Charley [angered, takes out more bills] You been jealous of me all your life … [14]248-251
“The false values, tightly woven into Willy’s personality, were destructive. His tragedy, to put it in other words, was the tragedy of man’s lost values in modern society, was the tragedy of man’s rebuilding values on illusion for defending his dignity.” [19]
In addition, Miller thinks “the wrong is the condition which suppresses man, perverts the flowing out of his love and creative instinct.” [10]435And it also lies Miller’s development of traditional tragic view.
As a social dramatist, Miller confirms the social forces as one of the most important causes of tragedy. Miller thinks that one must not conceive of man as a private entity and his social relations as something thrown at him. According to him, society is inside man and man is inside society. Raymond Williams thinks that in Miller “neither is the individual seen as a unit or the society as an aggregate, but both as belonging to a continuous and in real terms inseparable process.” [20]70
According to Miller, human is considered to be the product of forces outside the individual person. “The fate of seemingly insignificant individual must be the fate of the society, and the society’s conflicts must be the individual’s conflicts, man’s destruction in his effort to evaluate himself and to be evaluated justly, posits a wrong or an evil in his environment. Man is to achieve or to maintain the needed sense of personal dignity is the fault of society. ” [20]75
In Death of a Salesman, we can find a prototype of an alienated white collar man in the character of Willy Loman. It examines the cost of an alienated working class in the character of Willy. It shows that Willy is not only a victim of his personality, but also a victim of the flawed American society.
“There was respect, and comradeship, and gratitude in it. Today, it’s all cut and dried, and there’s no chance for bringing friendship to bear—or personality.” [14]204
Willy ……You can’t eat the orange and throw the peel away—a man is not a
pece of fruit. [14]206
As Willy said in the conversation with his boss Howard, the American society attaches more focus on the material. So when Willy was old and unable to travel around to do business, he was fired by the company relentlessly like the fruit. Willy’s tragic fate actually reveals the rules of the American society: one has to be completive; otherwise he will be left at the mercy of an unfortunate life. Willy’s tragic fate is typical illustration of common American. Under the law of the jungle, employees are only the tool of making money, once they are unable to make profit for their boss, they will inevitably await their doom.
4.2.3 Optimistic View of Tragic Ending Reflected in Death of a Salesman
According to Aristotle, the goal of tragedy is to evoke compassion to the tragic hero and the fear of the enigmatic destiny, so to realize elevation. Miller has developed it. In Tragedy and the Common Man, Miller points out that “The possibility of victory must be there in tragedy. ……In them(tragedy), and in them alone, must lies the belief—optimistic”. [10]451 He thinks that a modern dramatist should show not only defeat but also a free will.
So when Willy gradually realized that he had failed both as a salesman and as a father with his lifelong hard work and his expectation coming to nothing. He reminisced about the “good old days”, hoping to find him self and consolation. However, he was incapable of turning his whole life. Consequently he came to the idea that death can be the redemption and can help him to regain his lost dignity. Willy’s death at the end of the play is purposeful. In his opinion, he learned that “he is loved by his son and has been embraced and forgiven by him, Willy chose his death not as a escape but as a fulfillment.” 145
Willy actually put an end of his life with a joy, pride and a hope that his death will bring a fortune to the living and help his son to start his own business. He just lay down his life for the ones he loves. And this is where the optimistic view of the play lies. Meanwhile, Willy’s desperate commitment to his persistent illusion and dignity also give the audience the hope and thought instead of mere compassion and terror. Therefore, a moral triumph can be observed in the play. To Miller, “death is an assertion of bravery, it is just a way for the protagonist to live and die for it.” [21]147
Besides, Willy’s death also helped Biff to realize himself. Unlike Willy and Happy, Biff felt compelled to seek the truth about himself. While his father and brother were unable to accept the miserable reality of their respective lives, Biff acknowledged his failure and eventually managed to confront it. Biff bristled stiffly at self-deception. Biff saw himself as trapped in Willy’s grandiose fantasies. Intent on revealing the simple and humble truth behind Willy’s fantasy, Biff longed for the territory (the symbolically free West) obscured by his father’s blind faith in a skewed, materialist version of the American Dream. In the last action Biff said, “I know who I am, kid.”[14]369
This also gives the audience the hope that Biff has found his own way to go, he will not bound up with the blind faith which Willy has taught him. He is free and can live on his own view. From Biff’s arousal, we can assure that Biff will not wander any longer, he has nail down the direction of his life. We can even see an enterprising young man with a definite goal.
Both Willy’s death and Biff’s wakeup present Miller’s optimistic view in tragedy.
5. Conclusion
Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman is considered to be one of the best modern tragedies in the 20th century. According to Arthur Miller, “Tragedy is one of the most lasting categories of all literary genres. And tragedy should not dead to modern writers but to grow and develop to meet the changing needs of the modern society.”[10]345 His unique interpretations of tragedy have enriched the implications of drama, which can be considered to be his great contribution to the development of the modern drama.
Different from the traditional theories of tragedy, Miller practices his own views of tragedy in this play. Based on his experience and great insight, he succeeds in balancing his theory of tragedy between the succession and development of traditional tragedy theory.
His views are not limited to the studied or remembered models; his theory is well presented in his masterpiece. In this play, Miller practices his unique tragic view. In the term of the drama structure, use of symbolism and characteristics of the protagonist, Miller follows the traditional tragic theory. However, to a larger extent, he develops the traditional tragedy, which can be traced in the play: the subject matter, the cause of the tragic fate and the optimistic view showed at the end of the play all present Miller’s unique tragic view.
It is Miller’s unique tragic theory view that not only establishes Miller’s stature as one of the greatest giants in the drama but also makes his works full of significance.
Acknowledgements
My initial thanks go to my supervisor Kang Wenhong, who patiently supervised my dissertation and was at times very willing to offer me illuminating advice or suggestions. She has spent a lot of her precious time reading and correcting my paper. Without her help and guidance, I could not have finished this dissertation.
I am also indebted to other teachers and my classmates who have not only offered me their warm encouragements but also shared with me their ideas and books. They are Yan Yu xuan, Tan Cui ting, Hu Fang and so on.
My greatest personal debt is to my parents and my sister as well. They have cultivated a soul of sensitivity, hospitality, and honesty out of me, and offered a harbor of happiness and sweetness for me.
The remaining weakness and possible errors of the dissertation are entirely my own.
Refere nces
[1] BANHAM, MATTINE, ed. The Cambridge Guide to Theatre [M]. Cambridge:
Cambridge University, 1998.
[2] GREGORY, JUSTINA, ed. A Companion to Greek Tragedy, 2005.
[3] REHM, RUSH. Greek Tragic Theatre. Theatre production Studies [M]. London and New York: Routledge, 1992.
[4] 于潔.阿瑟•密勒的悲劇觀與其杰作《推銷員之死》[D]. 山東大學,2007.
[5] 亞里士多德, 羅念生譯.詩學[M].上海:上海世界出版社，2005.
[6] TAXIDOU, OLGA. Tragedy, Modernity and Mourning [M].Edinburgh: Edinburg
UP, 2004.
[7] BARBER, CAROL. Work and Family in Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman, 2002.
[8] MARTINE, ROBERTA. The Theater Essays of Arthur Miller [M].New York: Viking Penguin Inc, 1978.
. New York: Harper’s Magazine, 1959.
[10] ARTHUR MILLER. The Tragedy and the Common Man Introduction to Collected plays [M].New York and London: Viking Penguin Inc, 1977.
[11]劉海平，朱雪峰. 英美戲劇:作品與評論[M].上海:上海外語教學出版社，2004.
[12] JAMES MARTINE. Critical Essay on Arthur Miller [J].Boston: G.K. Hall, 1979.
[13] 張祥和.《推銷員之死》與傳統悲劇之比較[J].福州大學學報(哲學版)，2001.
[14] 阿瑟•米勒 推銷員之死[M].北京: 中國對外翻譯出版公司, 1999.
[15] CHRISTOPHER BIGSBY. The Cambridge Companion to Arthur Miller [M]. Cambridge: The Press Syndicated of the University of Cambridge, 1997.
[16] ARTHUR MILLER, Time bends [J]. New York: Grove Press, 1987.
[17] 馬可云. 一位普通美國人的悲劇原型—論《推銷員之死》中威利•洛曼的悲劇形象[J].四川外語學院學報, 2005.
[18] 朱清. 《推銷員之死》的象征藝術[J]. 南通師范學院學報(哲學社會科學版), 2001.
[19] 鄧建華. 小人物的悲劇—淺析“美國夢”在《推銷員之死》中的體現與幻滅[J].東北大學學報(社會科學版), 2005.
.Shanghai: Fudan University Press, 2006.
推銷學范文5
關鍵詞：推銷與談判；高職院校；教學模式改革
中圖分類號：G71
《推銷與談判》是市場營銷專業的實戰應用型專業課，推銷與談判的能力也是該專業的同學們在走入社會后從事本專業必備的工作技能之一。在專業課堂的教學中，該門課程主要采用的是“理論+實踐”的綜合教學方式，但隨著社會對就業人員要求的提高，能力導向教學方式的熱力推崇，該課程的教學模式也應與時俱進進行改革，以更好滿足社會要求和學生需求。
一、《推銷與談判》課程教學中存在的問題
1、教學效果與預期目標不匹配
《推銷與談判》課程主要培養的是學生與人溝通交流成功推銷產品、正確的推銷洽談等方面的能力，但是最后在檢驗學生的學習實戰中，其效果差強人意，與預期設定的目標差距較大。學生對基本知識點有粗略了解，但對專業知識點掌握程度卻直線下降，應該具備的技能和能力只有少數同學能達到預期目標。
2、部分學生學習積極性不高
目前高職類學生普遍存在學習自主性不高、不愿主動有目的的提高自己綜合素質、專業知識水平和技術能力較差的情況，面對學生的消極學習狀態老師在教學過程中的積極性也相應受挫。本專業的學生即使對于類似《推銷與談判》這樣的市場營銷類專業課其學習積極性也不高，課堂上總是有人在走神或是人到心不到，完全缺乏學習的興趣和積極性。
3、學生實際操作能力較差
學生真正能將課堂上學習到的知識用于實際的案例分析或是實戰操作當中的個案較少，對知識的轉移運用能力缺乏掌控力。有時候，對于剛說過的知識點，現場操作運用都難以找準要求點，更何況是對以前學過的知識或是對綜合知識點的實際運用。
二、《推銷與談判》課程教學問題的原因分析
針對《推銷與談判》課堂教學中存在的相關問題，教師雖然在教材、教具和教學方法等方面不斷采取方便學生學習的措施，但是學生改變的效果不明顯，深究背后的原因主要在以下幾點。
1、學生對于專業課重要性認識不夠
在課堂學習中，學生對于專業課知識的學習往往流于個性選擇化，認為有用的自己感興趣的知識就認真學習。而有的同學認為今后自己不會走銷售的工作崗位，因此對于《推銷與談判》課程的學習流于形式化，人來就不錯了，不會去下意識的加強個人在推銷與談判課程的學習。另外，教師陳舊的上課方式也是學生們不喜歡上課的原因之一。
2、實踐應用能力鍛煉不夠
由于教學規章制度、教學資源和設施的有限性，使得該門課程不能更多的采用現實銷售演練和走入市場銷售賣場當中的教學方式來增強學生們的實踐應用能力。都只能是在課堂或者偶爾在校園里進行推銷與談判的實踐能力演練，缺乏實踐應用操作。
3、缺乏系統的與人才培養目標相適應的實訓基地
高職教育是面向生產、建設、管理、服務一線培養高級技術技能型人才的教育，實訓基地建設是培養目標得以實現的重要保證[1]。但是，目前我校在市場營銷類實習實訓基地建設方面投入力度稍微欠缺，現在缺乏在校內建設的仿真、模擬或完全等同于管理工作現場實際的實訓基地，這需要投入大量資金，而目前學校力不從心，實踐教學也就大打折扣。
三、《推銷與談判》教學模式改革方式
1、突出職業定向，培養學生能力為首要目標
從以上描述的情況分析，《推銷與談判》課程教學模式改革的目的首先應該明確的指向改變學生學習積極性和幫助學生建立職業目標、主動學習職業發展需要的知識與技能上。要培養和發展學生的判斷力，鍛煉學生的問題解決技能（尤其是“分析技能”與“決策技能”）[2]，其次才是學習和了解特定領域里的具體知識內容。忽略了改革的主要目的僅僅強調教學方法的改革或教學管理的改革就會演變成老師改來改去而學生無動于衷的現象[3]。
2、改革教學方法，綜合開發學生職業興趣
教師根據自己在教學、科研以及為企業提供管理咨詢中的經驗，創造有自己獨特風格的教學方法結合本校學生的特殊性，一定要對現有教學方法進行的改良，可以適當的又選擇性的將部分學生引入到企業或者社會中進行現實生活中的推銷與談判課程教學。要使學生具有職業性就必須在具體教學中強化學生的職業能力訓練，進而綜合開發學生的職業興趣。
3、靈活考評方式，加強師生互動
可以使用傳統的“理論+項目”實戰的方式對學生在課堂上進行考核，也可以有針對的組織部分學生去市場上進行現實生活實際的推銷與談判，教師在旁邊對其表現進行考核。當然，在整個《推銷與談判》的課程教學中，教師與學生的互動和相互之間的疑難解答溝通，都是貫穿整個課程教學中最為重要的一個內容，改變以前教師只管上課不管下課后的傳統教學模式，一定要更多的加強師生間的互動，互相促進，學習好《推銷與談判》這門課程。
參考文獻：
[1]張宇，楊志國.高職管理類課程教學存在的問題分析[J].中國電力教育，2008，12（128）：113-114.
推銷學范文6
【關鍵詞】信息技術；中職教育；推銷課程；課程教學；應用研究
素質教育與教育現代化工程的深入發展，給中職推銷課程教學手段提出了更高的要求，許多諸如多媒體課件和在線學習（E-learning）等現代信息技術均已開始應用于實際課堂教學中。而在中職推銷課程中怎樣充分運用現代化的信息技術。結合實際工作經驗，筆者擬就我國信息技術在中職推銷課程中的應用研究做出論述。
1 信息技術在中職推銷課程教學中的應用思路
1.1 教學過程和環節設計方面
在教學過程和環節設計等方面，探索出以學生個別化自主學習和小組協同學習為主集體學習為輔的特色教學組織模式。合理安排自主學習、小組學習、集中輔導和作業以及實踐等教學環節，嘗試實行模塊制與導學制教學。并注重在教學過程中與學生進行交流，充分尊重學生的課堂教的主體地位。
1.2 教學內容改革方面
在教學內容改革方面，通過講解大量的國內外推銷實例，增加對本學科的前沿知識的講解，嘗試運用案例式、開放式和鏈結式的教學方式。既增強了學生應用推銷理論分析和解決問題的實際能力，又拓寬了中職學生的視野，開闊了學生的思路。
1.3 教學手段方面
以網絡為核心，結合學校及學生實際條件，實行多種技術與媒體相結合的手段，通過小組討論和網上BBS答疑開展多樣化和交互式的學習活動，嘗試實行插播式與討論式的教學手段，使學生能便利、經濟及有效地學習最新知識。
2 信息技術在中職推銷課程教學中的具體應用措施
2.1設計適合中職推銷課程教學改革的一體化方案，制定出能體現“少、精、寬和新”等特點的中職推銷課程教學規劃
根據中職推銷課程的性質及其在該專業整個課程體系中的地位和作用，在分析學生實際學習需要基礎上，嘗試設計一種網絡環境下的切合學校實際的關于課程教學的改革方案。
2.2 嘗試實行案例式、開放式和鏈接式教學，注重加強開放，交互式學習活動，充分利用多種媒體教學資源及相關現代教育技術手段，進一步改革教學內容和教學方式
2.2.1 適當分開課堂講授體系與教材體系，重在解答教材中的重點和難點問題；適當增加對本學科前沿知識和公司案例的講授，將營銷理論與現實實踐緊密結合，適當進行“情境創設”，將講評作業，社會調研結論與對學科知識的拓展學習緊密結合起來，打破傳統的“封閉式”教學，實現精講多練，學用結合，使學習者通過“同化”與“順應”達到對新知識意義的建構。
2.2.2 積極嘗試利用計算機投影設備，網上直播等現代化教學設施，開展多樣化，交互學習活動。首先，在充分熟悉和掌握本課程多種媒體教學資源的種類與內容的基礎上。其次，運用多媒體計算機設備進行課堂教學，嘗試實行插播式和鏈接式教學。
2.2.3 積極采用QQ、E-mail和BBS等現代化教學設施，對學生的疑問進行解答和回復。建立多種與學生進行互動的方式，利用QQ、QQ群、E-mail和BBS等形式，在課下與學生進行互動，回答學生的課堂疑問，與學生對知識點進行討論，開展多樣化的交互式學習活動。
2.3 嘗試實行導學式和討論式教學，不斷探索體現終身教育思想和建構主義教育理論的個人自主學習和小組學習的新形式
學校網絡教育更加強調教師“導學”下的學生自主學習。因此，在教學中通過公布教師的通訊地址以及全校本課程的教師資源庫信息，安排組織學生參加BBS討論，網上答疑等教學活動，鼓勵師生，生生之間的學習交流活動。建構主義的一個基本觀點就是要使學生在教師的組織和引導下一起討論和交流，形成一個共同的學習群體。因此，小組協作學習是網絡教育的又一重要形式。
2.4 探索多樣化形式，進一步加大對實踐教學的探索
加強實踐性教學是本課程的特點和本“試點項目”的要求。首先，我們明確設計了課內實踐教學的內容與要求，并通過輔導課上的案例教學與小組討論加以實施。使之不僅成為激發學生興趣，訓練學生提出和解決問題能力的有效途徑，而且也成為實踐性教學的重要環節之一。其次，通過完成“教學實踐與社會調研”作業來達到增強學生應用與創新能力的目的。
2.5 實行分層交叉模塊制，充分發揮網絡教育各教學環節綜合互補作用
結合具體實例簡要介紹各模塊在具體教學過程中是如何組織實施的。首先，在對課程教學的基礎上，選出當前所學知識中的“主題”，然后再將其與不同的教學環節相結合形成不同的教學模塊。其次，實現各教學模塊既分層又交叉，并滲透于各教學環節之中。第一步是課前引導。旨在使學生明確本章的核心內容、學習宗旨與要點、自學方法建議與要求，有針對性地選擇學習資源與方法。第二步是個別化自主學習。旨在培養學生根據需要決定學習內容、方式和進度的能力，使學生不僅了解、掌握本章的主要概念和基本原理，而且還要明確本章的重點和難點，提出沒有理解和希望解決的問題反饋給學生。第三步是課堂面授學習。本環節包括面授課教學模塊、音像課教學模塊和網上直播課教學模塊等。第四步是課外小組學習。重點是在自學過程的第二和第三階段開展相互學習，討論和參觀學習活動，旨在交流信息，解決疑難問題，綜合眾人智慧，發揮群體合力以完成共性問題，以利于教學實踐與社會調研活動的開展與完成。第五步是作業和實踐。通過完成本單元課程作業并和實踐考核模塊交叉結合來培養學生的實際應用能力和創新思維能力。
3 結論
在中職推銷課程教學過程中應用現代信息技術，應堅持學科和信息技術整合的觀念，即以中職學生的實際需要為重心，重點突出“以學生及其自主學習為重心”的設計思想，探索出在知識經濟時代大背景下能體現中職學生自主學習的學習模式。并以理論學習來指導實踐，以教學實踐來檢驗研究成果，進一步推動中職推銷課程實踐開展。
參考文獻：
[1]李紅. 探索現代信息技術在中職專業課中的運用[J]. 中國信息技術教育, 2010,(22).
[2] 黃建蓉. 現代信息技術應用于中職英語的教學創新[J]. 福建基礎教育研究, 2010,(04) .
